PROGRAMMING IN C++.
OOP:-.
OOP stands for Object Oriented Programming. It is a better approach of programming over the old approach so called Procedural programming.
C++ CHARACTER SET:-.
LETTERS
A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z,.
A b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x y z;.
DIGITS
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9;.
SPECIAL SYMBOLS: + - * \ / = ! < > ( ) { } [ ] , . ? : ; ‘ “ | `~
& ^ % $ # @ _ ;.
WHITE SPACES
Blank Space, Horizontal Tab, Carriage Return, New line, Form feed;.
OTHER CHARACTERS
256 ASCII characters;.
TOKENS:-.
Token is a fragment of a statement separated from the rest by white space(s).
And is similar to that of a word of the English literature.
The smallest individual unit in a program is known as token.
TYPES OF TOKENS:-.
1). Keywords:-.
(Reserve-words) Keywords are those words that convey a special meaning to the language compiler.
I). Selection statements:-.
if
else
- nested if (else if).
Switch.
II). Loop:-.
Iteration
while
do while
for
III).
continue
break
2). Identifiers:-.
An identifier is a long sequence of letters and digits.
*Rules for naming/creating an identifier:-.
(1). The identifier must start either with an alphabet or with _ (underscore).
(2). The identifier should not start with digits (0-9) but it can contain them in between.
(3). An identifier must not contain more than 256 characters.
(4). The identifier must not contain a special character.
(5). The identifier should not be the same as a reserve-word of the IDE.
(6). Since every thing in C, C++ language is case-sensitive so it should always be considered.
3). Literals:-.
(Constants) Literals are data items that never change their value during the execution of.
The program;.
Types of literals:-.
(I). Integer-constants. Integer-constants are whole numbers without any fractional part.
*Rule for creating an integer constant
(1). An integer constant must have at least 1 digit.
(2). An integer must not contain a decimal point.
(3). It may contain a +, - sign; A number no sign is considered to be positive.
(4). There should not be any comma (,) in between.
There are 3 different types of integer constants
(1). Decimal Integer constants (base-10). An integer constant which does not start with 0.
Is said to be a decimal integer constant.
(2). Octal Integer constants (base-8). An integer constant which starts with 0 is said to be.
An octal integer constant.
(3). Hexadecimal Integer constants (base-16): An integer constant starting with x0 or X0
Is said to be a hexadecimal integer constant.
(II). Character constants. A character constant is one character enclosed in single quotes.
*Rule for creating a character constant
(1). A character constant must contain only 1 character.
(2). It should be enclosed within single quotes (‘ ‘).
(III). Floating constants. (Real constants) Floating constants are real numbers having fractional part.
It can be written in the following 2 forms
(I). Fractional form
*Rule for writing a floating constant (Fractional form)
(1). A floating constant must have at least 1 digit.
(2). A floating constant containing fractional part must contain at least one digit before the
Decimal point and 1 digit after the decimal point.
(3). It may contain a +, - sign; A number no sign is considered to be positive.
(4). There should not be any comma (,) in between.
(II). Exponent form: A floating constant in exponent form contains two parts
1) Mantissa. That part of the floating constant in exponent form which is before the E or e.
Of the number is said to be the mantissa.
2) Exponent. That part of the floating constant in exponent form which is behind the E or e.
Of the number is said to be exponent.
*Rule for writing a floating constant (Exponent form)
(1). The mantissa must be either an integer or a proper real constant.
(2). The mantissa must be followed by ‘e’ or ‘E’ and exponent.
(3). The exponent must be an integer.
4). Punctuators:-.
It includes the following characters
[ ]
Brackets:
( )
Parentheses:
{ } Braces
,
Comma:
;
Semicolon:
Colon:
*
Asterisk:
… Ellipses
=
Equal to sign:
#
Pound sign:
5). Operators:-.
Operators are tokens that trigger some computation when applied to variables and other.
Objects in an expression.
Types of operators (On the basis of number of required operators):-.
I). Unary operators. Unary operators are those operators which require only one operator to.
operate upon.
&
Address operator.
*
Indirection operator.
+
Unary plus.
-
Unary minus.
~
Bitwise complement.
++
Increment operator.
--
Decrement operator.
!
Logical negation operator.
II). Binary operators. Binary operators are those operators which require at least 2.
Operators to operate upon.
1).Arithmetic operators
+
Addition.
-
Subtraction.
*
Multiplication.
/
Division.
% Remainder.2). Shift Operators
<<
Shift left.
>>
Shift right.
3). Bitwise operators
&
Bitwise AND.
^
Bitwise exclusive OR (XOR).
!
Bitwise OR.
4). Logical operators
&& Logical AND.|| Logical OR.5). Assignment operators
=
Assignment.
*=
Product assignment.
/=
Assign quotient.
%= Assign remainder.+=
Assign sum.
-=
Assign difference.
<<=
Assign left shift.
>>=
Assign right shift.
&=
Assign bitwise AND.
^=
Assign bitwise XOR.
!=
Assign bitwise OR.
6). Relational operators
<
Less than.
>
More than.
<=
Less than or Equal to.
>=
Greater than or Equal to.
==
Equal to.
!=
Not Equal to.
7). Component Selection Operators
Direct component selector.
Indirect component selector.
8). Class member operators
Scope access / resolution.
*
Deference pointer to class member.
->*
Deference pointer to class member.
9). Conditional operators
?
The order of precedence for operators is as follows
( )
[ ] ->.
!
~ + - ++ -- & *(typeset).
*
/ %.
+
-.
<< >><< < <= > >>===
!=.
&.
^.
|.
&&||?
= *= / =%= += -= &= ^= |= < <= > >=*Operators within the parentheses are performed first.
Indentation:-.
Comments:-.
Backslash characters (escape sequences):-.
